Perception: is making sense of that information (sensation)

B. Transducer: a mechanism that converts energy from one form
   to another

Problem: neurons use only chemical & electrical energy
Outside World   | Sensory System       Sensation/Perception
Electromagnetic | Vision               Seeing
       Pressure | Audition             Hearing
      Chemicals | Gustation            Tasting
      Chemicals | Olfaction            Smelling
       Mechanic | Somatosensation      Touch
                |
                |<- Transduction
 

C. SENSORY THRESHOLDS AND ADAPTATION:
1. psychophysics: The study of how physical stimuli are
   translated into psychological (sensory) experiences
 
 

2. Absolute Thresholds: is the minimum amount of stimulation
   that an organism can detect 50% of the time.
 
 
 

3. Difference Thresholds - Just Noticeable Difference (jnd):
   Is the smallest difference in the amount of stimulation
   that a specific sense can detect
 
 
 

4. Signal Detection Theory:  A decision making process
 
 

5. Sensory Adaptation: Involves a gradual decline in
   sensitivity to prolonged stimulation (you get use to it).
 
 

   Dark Adaptation: eyes become MORE SENSITIVE to light in
   low illumination.

*  * VISION  *  *

THE EYE
  A. STRUCTURES THAT FOCUS VISUAL IMAGES
  1. Cornea: serves as protection for the structures behind it
 
 

  2. Lens:
     - Transparent eye structure
     - FOCUSES the light rays falling on the retina (focuses
       the visual image)
 
 

  3. Pupil: opening in the center of the iris that helps
     REGULATE the AMOUNT OF LIGHT passing into the rear
     chamber of the eye
 
 
 

  4. Iris: ring of muscle whose pigmentation give the eye its
     characteristic color (blue, brown, hazel)
 
 
 

  5. Ciliary Muscles: small muscles attached to lens - controls
     shape and focusing capability called accommodation.

     Accommodation: a reflexive change in the lens of the eye
     to bring into sharp focus objects at different distances
 

  6. Aqueous Humor: nourishes the cornea and structures at the
     front of the eye.
 

  7. Vitreous humor: keeps the eyeball rounded by filling the
     space behind the lens.
 
 
 

B. RETINA: neural tissue lining the inside back surface of
     the eye (light energy is changed to neural energy)

  1. Photoreceptors:
     - Cells that are light-sensitive
     - Two types rods & cones; names based on shape of
       receptors

    a) Rods: specialized visual receptors that play a key role
       in NIGHT VISION and PERIPHERAL vision
 
 

    b) Cones: specialized visual receptors that play a key
       role in DAYLIGHT VISION and COLOR VISION
 
 

  2. Optic Nerve:
     - Collection of axons from the retina that connect the eye
       with the brain.
 
 

  3. Blind Spot: The area at which the optic nerve exits the
     retina.
 

    4. Fovea: tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains
     ONLY CONES
 

C. VISUAL PATHWAY AFTER THE RETINA
Optic Chiasma: junction within the brain where optic nerves converge so that signals from each half of the visual field are carried to opposite sides of the visual cortex
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

III. THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:
  A. Trichromatic: (Young-Helmholtz)
  Primary Hues: red, green, & blue
  - The human eye has THREE TYPES of receptors with differing
    sensitivities to different wavelengths
 
 
 

  B. Opponent-Process:
  - Color is perceived in three channels, where an either-
    or-response is made to pairs of ANTAGONISTIC colors
 
 
 

    Afterimage: visual image that persists after a stimulus
    is removed
 
 

*  * HEARING AND THE OTHER SENSES * *
THE EAR
   1. Pinna:
    - External part of ear - for collecting sound

   2. Eardrum: taut membrane - vibrates

   3. Middle Ear: (collectively called ossicles)
    - Pass vibrations along to the Oval Window
        Malleus (Hammer):
        Incus (anvil):
        Stapes (stirrup):
 

   4. Oval Window: is a membrane similar to but smaller than
      the eardrum

   5. Cochlea: a fluid filled coiled tunnel within the bone of
      the skull

      a) Basilar Membrane: runs the length of the cochlea hold
         the auditory receptors called hair cells

      b) Hair Cells: convert physical stimulation into neural
         signals (like rods & cones in the eye)

II. CHEMICAL SENSES
A. Taste and smell are stimulated by chemical molecules
 

B. Taste and smell are interrelated
 

C. Taste Buds: Fire neural impulses when they absorb
   chemicals dissolved in your saliva
 
 
 

D. Hair Cells:
 
 
 
 

III. POSITION SENSES:

A. Vestibular Sense: Important for posture and SENSE OF BALANCE
 
 
 
 
 

B. Kinesthetic Sense: monitors the POSITION of the VARIOUS
   PARTS of your body
 
 
 
 

IV. PAIN: A SPECIAL SENSE
A. Pain, or the fear of it, is a very strong motivator
B. Feeling pain creates an awareness of problems occurring
   somewhere in our bodies
C. Very intense stimulation of virtually any sense receptor
   can produce pain
D. Pain receptors are found both on the skin and within the
   body.
E. The gate-control theory suggests that pain happens not at
   the receptor sites, but within the central nervous system.
 
 
 
 

*  * SELECTION AS PART OF ATTENTION *  *

A. STIMULUS FACTORS (Bottom up) Physical characteristics of
   the stimuli
    A) Contrast         D) Motion
    B) Intensity        E) Novelty-Familiarity
    C) Size             F) Repetition
 
 
 
 
 

B. PERSONAL FACTORS (Top-Down):

   Mental Set: Predisposed way to perceive something (an
   expectation).
 
 
 
 
 

C. PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
  1. Gestalt: Interested in how perception enable us to group
     and organize stimuli together
 
 
 
 

  2. Figure-Ground Relationship:
 
 
 
 
 

  3. Reversible Figure: drawing that is compatible with two
     different interpretations that can shift back and forth
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

D. STIMULUS FACTORS: Characteristics of stimuli that help us
   perceive them as being organized together in one figure

   1. Proximity (or contiguity): things that are near each
      other seem to belong together.
 

   2. Similarity: We tend to group stimuli that are similar
 

   3. Continuity: Principle of continuity reflects our tendency
      to follow in whatever direction we have been led.
 

   4. Common Fate: Elements that move together tend to be
      grouped together.

   5. Closure: Grouping of elements so that they create a sense
      of closure, or completeness.

      SUBJECTIVE CONTOURS: (special case of closure)

   6. Simplicity: law of "pragnanz" we tend to group elements
      that combine to form a good figure.

*  * PERCEPTION OF DEPTH AND DISTANCE *  *
   + We do not directly sense Depth and Distance; it is
     something we PERCEIVE.
   + Rely on indirect predictors of distance (binocular &
     monocular cues)
   + Construction of three-dimensional vision is one of the
     brain’s most important activities.

A. OCULAR CUES (Binocular cues): are cues about distance
     that one obtained by comparing the differing views of the
     two eyes.

   a) Retinal Disparity:  (Principle Binocular depth cue)
      Objects project images to slightly different locations on
      your right and left retinas.
 

   b) Convergence (Another Binocular cue): Sensing your eyes
      converging toward each other as they focus on closer
      objects.
 

   c) Accommodation: is the changing of the shape of the lens
      by the ciliary muscles to focus images on the retina.
 

B. PHYSICAL CUES (Pictorial Cues - MONOCULAR cues to Depth):
  a. Linear Perspective: parallel lines that run away from the
     viewer seem to get closer together

  b. Interposition: The shapes of near objects overlap or mask
     those of more distant ones.

  c. Relative Size: If separate objects are expected to be of
     the same size, the larger ones are seen as closer.

  d. Texture Gradient (Aerial Haze): a texture, such as the
     pattern of stones, is coarser for near areas and finer for
     more distant ones. [AH: With distance objects seem
     increasingly hazy and bluish in color].

  e. Patterns of Shading: Pattern of light and dark suggest
     which objects are in front of which other

  f. Motion Parallax: Objects closer to you appear to move
     faster than distant objects.  Images of closer objects
     move across the retina more rapidly than do distant
     objects.
 

*  * CONSTANCY OF PERCEPTIONS *  *
   1. Size Constancy: Our tendency to view objects as stable in
      size even though the size of their image changes when
      they are viewed from different distances.
 

   2. Shape Constancy: compensates for distortions due to the
      three dimensional nature of the world (e.g. door)
 

   3. Brightness Constancy: white shirt sensed as gray at night
      but perceived as white.
 

*  * GEOMETRIC ILLUSIONS & IMPOSSIBLE ILLUSIONS *  *

   Illusion: perception that is at odds with what we know as
    physical reality.
    1) They do not depend upon our ignorance
    2) They do not "occur" at the retina
    3) They do not depend on movement of the eye.
 
 

B. Three Levels of Consciousness (Freud):
   1) Conscious:

   2) Preconscious:

   3) Unconscious:
 

C. Subliminal Perception: stimulus presented below the threshold
   for conscious perception.
 

* * VARIETIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS * *
A. SLEEP
  1. Electroencephalogram (EEG):

     a) ALPHA Activity: EEG pattern, eyes closed, not
        a sleep,a calm and relaxed state

     b) BETA Activity: Wide awake

  2. Electromyogram:
 

  3. STAGES OF SLEEP
  Stage 1: Brief transitional stage usually last 5-10 min.
   * ALPHA waves give way to THETA waves.
 

  Stage 2: Characterized by brief burst of higher-frequency
  brain waves, sleep spindles-> fairly regular intervals
  * START to get DELTA WAVES
 

  Stage 3: 20% of EEG activity DELTA WAVES
 

  Stage 4: More than 50% of EEG DELTA WAVES
 
 

  REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement):
  * Deep stage of sleep Difficult to awaken a person
  * EEG activity dominated by BETA WAVES
  * Stage where most dreaming occurs.
 
 

  Atonia: Muscle tone is extremely relaxed, bodily movement
  are minimal & sleeper is virtually paralyzed.
  ENTIRE SLEEP CYCLE RUNS ABOUT 90 Min.
 
 

  6. Dreams:

     Nightmares: are anxiety arousing dreams that lead to
     awakening (usually from REM sleep).
 

     Night Terrors: Abrupt awakening from Non-Rem sleep
     accompanied by intense autonomic arousal & feelings of
     panic.
 
 

  7. Somnambulism (sleepwalking): occurs when a sleeping
     person arises and wanders about in deep Non-REM sleep
     (stage 3 or 4).
 
 
 

B. SLEEP DISORDERS:
  1) Insomnia: chronic problems in getting adequate sleep
 
 
 

  2) Narcolepsy:
 
 

  3) Sleep Apnea:
 
 

  4) Hypersomnia:
 
 
 

C. FUNCTION(S) OF SLEEP
  1) Deprivation Studies:
 

  2) Microsleeps: moments of drowsiness, EEG activity
     resembles Stage 1 sleep.
 

  3) Restorative Process:
 
 

  4) Evolutionary Process:
 
 
 

* * VOLUNTARY ALTERATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS * *

A. HYPNOSIS: an altered state of consciousness one enters
   voluntarily.

   * Can produce sensory distortions & hallucinations

   HALLUCINATIONS: are perceptual experiences that occur
   without sensory input.
 
 

  1) SPECIAL PROCESS THEORY:

     Hidden Observer Theory:
 

     HIGHWAY HYPNOSIS: person drives a great distance
     responding to traffic signals & other cars with no
     recall of any consciousness effort to do so.
 
 

  2) NONSTATE-VIEW THEORY:
 
 
 

B. MEDITATION: self-induced state of altered consciousness
 
 
 

C. ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS WITH DRUGS

   PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: Psychoactive Drugs are chemical
   substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral
   functioning.
 

   Dependence:

   Tolerance:

   Withdrawal:

   Addiction:

   Drug Abuse:
 
 

  1) STIMULANTS: are drugs that tend to increase central
     nervous system activation and behavioral activity.
 

     a) Caffeine: found in may foods as well as many varieties
        of pain killers.
 
 

     b) Nicotine: activate excitatory synapse in both CNS &
        PNS
 
 

     c) Cocaine: elevates blood pressure & heart rate,
 
 

     d) Amphetamines: (Effect Norepinephrine & Dopamine)
 
 

  2) DEPRESSANTS: reduces one's awareness of external stimuli,

     Alcohol:
 
 
 
 

  3) Opiates, Heroine, & Barbiturates:
 

     a) Opiates (Narcotics):  can reduce or eliminate
        sensation of pain, tend to ignore real-world stimuli.
 

        Examples: Heroin & Morphine
 
 

    b) Barbiturates: synthetically produced sedatives
 
 
 

  4) HALLUCINOGENS: Are a diverse group of drugs that have a
     powerful effect on mental and emotional functioning.
     - Distortions in sensory and perceptual experiences.
     LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide):
 
 

  5) MARIJUANA: A mild, relaxed euphoria, accompanied by
     enhanced sensory awareness and a distorted sense of time.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

II. Reflex: unlearned automatic response that occurs in the
    presence of a specific stimulus
 
 
 

III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Pavlovian Conditioning OR Respondent Conditioning): is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
 
 

  A. Conditioning: is the simplest form of learning it involves
     learning associations between stimuli and responses.
 
 

    1) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Is a stimulus that evokes an
       unconditioned response without previous conditioning.
 

    2) Unconditioned Response (UCR): Is an unlearned reaction to an
       unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous
       conditioning.
 

    3) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Is a previously neutral stimulus
       that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to
       evoke a conditioned response.
 

    4) Conditioned Response (CR): Is a learned reaction to a
     conditioned stimulus that occurs due to previous
     conditioning.
 

  B. Orienting Reflex: a simple, unlearned response of orienting
     toward, or attending to a new or unusual stimulus.
 

  C. Habituation: is when an organism comes to ignore a stimulus of
     no consequence.
 
 

IV. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PHENOMENA
  A. Acquisition: Is the formation of a new conditioned response
     tendency.
 
 

  B. Extinction: The GRADUAL WEAKENING and DISAPPEARANCE of a
     Conditioned response tendency.
 
 

  C. Spontaneous Recovery: is the reappearance of an extinguished
     response AFTER a period of NONEXPOSURE to the conditioned
     stimulus.
 
 

  D. Generalization: occurs when an organism responds to new
     stimuli that are SIMILAR to the ORIGINAL STIMULUS used in
     conditioning
 
 

  E. Discrimination (OPPOSITE OF GENERALIZATION): Occurs when one
     DOES NOT RESPOND to stimuli that are similar to the original
     stimulus used in conditioning.
 
 

V. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE:
  A. ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS SOMETIMES TRY TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF
     CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
 
 

  B. PHOBIC DISORDERS:
     - Example of Classical Conditioning in everyday life.
 
 
 

  C. Systematic Desensitization: the use of classical conditioning
     in which a state of relaxation is paired with anxiety-
     producing stimuli to alleviate irrational fears.
 
 

  D. CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION: Conditioned ONLY through the
     pairing of taste stimuli & nausea.
 
 

VI. JUST WHAT IS LEARNED IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING?
* Conditioning is now viewed as the LEARNING OF RELATIONSHIPS
that exists among events in the world.
 
 

Higher-Order Conditioning: in which a conditional stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus
 
 

VII. APPLYING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TO YOUR STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY
   - Find a special place to study - RESERVED ONLY for
     studying.
   - Common locations can act as conditioned stimuli and
     come to elicit conditioned responses.
 
 
 

*   * OPERANT CONDITIONING * *

I. OPERANT CONDITIONING (Instrumental Learning): is a form of
   learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by
   their consequences.
 

  Law Of Effect (Thorndike): if a response in the presence of a
  stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the
  stimulus and the response is strengthened.
 
 

II. COURSE OF CONDITIONING:
  A. Shaping: The reinforcement of closer & closer approximation of
     the desired response
 
 

  B. Acquisition: an increase in response rate due to the process
     of operant conditioning.
 

  C. Extinction: Gradual weakening & disappearance of a response
     tendency because the response is no longer followed by a
     reinforcer.
 

  D. Spontaneous Recovery: extinguished response returns after a
     rest interval.
 

III. REINFORCEMENT
  A. Reinforcement: occurs when an event following a response
     strengths the tendency to make the response & can be thought
     of as a reward.

     1) Positive Reinforcer: occurs when a response is strengthen
        because it is followed by the arrival of a (presumably)
        pleasant stimulus.
 
 
 

     2) Negative Reinforcer: a response is STRENGTHENED because if
        is followed by the removal of a (presumably) unpleasant
        stimulus.
 
 
 

         TWO WAYS TO INCREASE A BEHAVIOR: we can
          a. give someone something that they "like" (positive
             reinforcement) OR

          b. take away something that they "dislike" (negative
             reinforcement),
 
 

     3) Primary Reinforcers: are stimulus events that are
        inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological
        needs for humans.
 
 
 
 

     4) Secondary Reinforcers: are stimulus events that acquire
        reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary
        reinforcers.
 
 
 
 

     5) Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF): EVERY instance
        of a designated response is reinforced.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

     6) Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules: Occurs when a
        designated response is reinforced only some of the time.
        a) Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR): the reinforcer is given after
           a FIXED number of non-reinforced responses
 
 

        b) Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI): reinforcement is given for
           the FIRST RESPONSE that occurs AFTER a FIXED INTERVAL
           has elapsed.
 
 

        c) Variable-Ratio Schedule (VR): the reinforcer is given
           after a VARIABLE NUMBER of non-reinforced responses.
 
 

        d) Variable-Interval Schedule (VI): The reinforcer is given
           for the first response after a variable time interval
           has elapsed.
 
 

  B. PUNISHMENT: Occurs when an event that follows a response
     weakens or suppresses the tendency to make the response.

     1) Positive Punishment: a response is followed by the
        presentation of aversive stimulus
 
 

     2) Negative Punishment: a response is followed by the
        removal of a pleasant stimulus.
 
 
 

  C. GENERALIZATION:
 
 

  D. DISCRIMINATION:
 
 

  E. Instinctive Drift: occurs when an animal's innate response
     tendencies interfere with conditioning processes.
 

You can reinforce your own actions for studying!
 

*   * COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING * *

COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING: Learning that need not
involve an observable behavior.
 
 

  Latent Learning: learning that is NOT shown in behavior at
  the time it occurs.
 

  Cognitive Map: a mental representation or a mental picture of
  a physical environment due to learning.
 

  Social Learning Theory: learning can take place through
  imitation and observation of models
 

  Learning the consequences of one's behavior by observing the
  consequences of someone else's behavior
 

  Vicarious Reinforcement:
 

  Vicarious Punishment: