Yale Model: The Communicator

Perceived credibility is the most important source characteristic
The higher the perceived credibility, the more persuasion
Two underlying dimensions to credibility

Expertise (qualifications to speak on a topic)
Trustworthiness (motivation behind persuasive attempt)

Expertise and trustworthiness need not go together

Bill Clinton: High expertise/low trustworthiness
Ronald Reagan: Low expertise/high trustworthiness

Yale Model: The Communicator

Other factors relating to the communicator:

Speech style: Rapid (to a point) fluid speech with eye contact yields most persuasion
More persuasion if you believe that the communicator is not trying to persuade you (e.g., hidden camera)
Physical attractiveness: The more attractive the communicator, the greater the persuasion

Exception: If attractiveness is used in a negative way

Perceived similarity to communicator: More persuasion with greater similarity

SLEEPER EFFECT: After a delay credibility information loses its impact. Impact returns if person reminded about credibility

Yale Model: The Message

A one-sided message presents only one side of an argument, whereas a two-sided message presents both sides
A two-sided message is best if your audience is WELL- INFORMED on the topic, whereas a one-sided message is best if your audience is NOT well-informed
A one-sided message is best if your audience already agrees with your message. A two-sided message is better for an audience that initially disagrees with you
A PRIMACY EFFECT means that arguments presented first are more persuasive than later ones. A RECENCY EFFECT means that arguments presented second are more persuasive than those presented first.

Yale Model: The Message

All other things being equal, PRIMACY EFFECTS are stronger than recency effects
Whether you get primacy or recency depends on the persuasion situation:

Primacy: When messages presented back-to-back with a delay before attitude assessment
Recency: If there is a delay between messages and attitude assessment occurs after the second message

Yale Model: Message Discrepancy

DISCREPANCY: The difference between the initial attitude of your audience and the content of your message. High discrepancy=you message is very different from your audience's initial attitude
Too much discrepancy will produce little attitude change because the audience will reject the message
If a message is not at all discrepant, no attitude change occurs because you are telling your audience what they already believe

Yale Model: Message Discrepancy

You get the most persuasion with a moderate amount of discrepancy
A high-credibility communicator can "get away with" more discrepancy than a low-credibility communicator. That is, a high credibility communicator is persuasive with high discrepancy. Message discrepancy and communicator credibility interact
Audience involvement and discrepancy also interact. Highly involved audiences tolerate less discrepancy than less involved audience.

Yale Model: Rational and Emotional Messages

Rational appeals (using facts and figures) are most effective when:

The audience is well educated
The audience is highly involved with the issue and will carefully process the contents of the message

Persuasive messages are effective when they are associated with good feelings. For example, a message is more persuasive when you are in a good mood
Persuasive messages arousing negative affect are also effective. These are known as FEAR APPEALS.

Yale Model: Rational and Emotional Messages

Fear appeals are most effective when three conditions are met:

The amount of fear aroused is relatively strong, but not so strong as to turn a person off
The target of the message must believe that the dire consequences in the appeal could happen to him or her
The target of the message must be shown how to avoid the dire consequences depicted in the appeal. This third condition is essential, without it a fear appeal won't work even if the first two conditions are met

Political advertisements often employ fear appeals (e.g., the "Willie Horton Ads" used by George Bush)

Yale Model: The Audience

Forewarning an audience effectively reduces persuasion because the audience has a chance to form COUNTERARGUMENTS to the message
Forewarning is especially effective with individuals who are highly involved with an issue. These individuals are highly motivated to form counterarguments
Persuasion is also increased in the audience is distracted from the message enough to prevent counterarguing.
Distraction is most effective with a simple message. Distraction from a complex message prevents individuals from considering your arguments as well as preventing counterarguing
Generally, any strategy that prevents your audience from counterarguing your message will increase persuasion

Key Points of Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitions (thoughts), attitudes, and behavior can stand in one of three relationships with one another

Consonant (consistent)
Dissonant (inconsistent)
Irrelevant

When inconsistency occurs between cognitions, attitudes and behavior a psychological state called COGNITIVE DISSONANCE is aroused
Cognitive dissonance is a negative motivational state (like hunger) that is aversive to a person. A person will try to reduce or eliminate dissonance

Key Points of Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The magnitude of the dissonance is related to the degree of inconsistency experienced
A person experiencing dissonance will be motivated to reduce or eliminate it
The larger the magnitude of the dissonance, the more a person will try to reduce it
Dissonance reduction can come through cognition, attitude, or behavior change, or some combination of the three

Conditions that Arouse Dissonance

POST-DECISIONAL DISSONANCE: Dissonance is aroused AFTER making a decision between two mutually-exclusive, different, equally attractive alternatives

Not to be confused with pre-decision conflict

EFFORT JUSTIFICATION: Dissonance is aroused when something we have worked hard for does not pan out (e.g., go through a rigorous initiation to a club that turns out to be boring)
FORCED (INDUCED) COMPLIANCE: Dissonance is aroused after we have engaged in a behavior we have been induced into performing. We will then look for reasons to justify our behavior.

Conditions that Arouse Dissonance

DISCONFIRMATION OF A DEEPLY HELD BELIEF: Dissonance is aroused when an important belief that we hold deeply is disconfirmed by empirical evidence. Dissonance is reduced by INCREASING the strength of the belief
INSUFFICIENT JUSTIFICATION: Dissonance is aroused when we have insufficient justifications for our behavior. Often, attitude change follows.

When Disconfirmation of a Belief Leads to Increased Fervor in the Belief

A belief must beheld with deep conviction and the belief must be relevant to the believer's behavior
The person holding the belief must be committed to it and must have taken some important action that is difficult to undo
The belief must be sufficiently specific and deal with the real world so that events can refute the belief
Undeniable evidence that the belief is false must exist and be recognized by the believer
The individual believer must have social support for the belief before and after disconfirmation of the belief
This phenomenon can be seen in a variety of contexts:

Doomsday groups
Continuing to give money to discredited TV evangelists
Membership in cult groups

Dissonance in the People's Temple

Members were often eased into membership. Initially, few demads were made and the Temple provided whatever the member needed
Gradually, new members were required to make a greater commitment to the Temple. In some cases, members turned over their goods to the Temple and signed over power of attorney
Once in the group, misconduct was met with harsh punishment such as physical abuse and/or verbal humiliation
Strong social support networks developed among members
The cult became isolated when they moved to Guyana
New members were often disenchanted, dissatisfied individuals who were unhappy with their lives before joining the People's Temple

Alternatives to Dissonance Theory

SELF PERCEPTION THEORY

We learn abou our own attitudes, behaviors, and internal states by observing our own behavior and infer internal states to go with the behavior
Attitude change comes about because we analyze our behavior and infer an attitude that matches.
No need for internal state of tension (cognitive dissonance) to account for attitude change

SELF AFFIRMATION THEORY

No need to reduce dissonance if you can convince yourself that you are adequate in other ways
Self affirmation removes much of the negative effects of dissonance

Alternatives to Dissonance Theory

RATIONALIZATION

Come up with rationalizations for attitude discrepant behavior
Helps maintain a coherent self-concept in the face of inconsistency
In some cases, behavior change may be too difficult to achieve and a person is stuck with dissonance
Rationalizations help maintain self-image when this happens

Propaganda: A Definition

Propaganda is a systematic attempt by an interested individual (or group) to control the attitudes of groups of individuals through the use of suggestion, and consequently to control their actions (Leonard Doob)
One of the first uses of propaganda was by the Catholic Church under Pope Urban VII. In 1863 the Pope established the "Congregation of Propaganda" to oversee foreign missions to the Church. The committee was charged with the task of propagating Church Doctrine through those missions.

Propaganda: A Definition

Most laypersons see propaganda as a pack of lies and half-truths used by an "enemy" against us. This is not totally correct
Most modern propagandists root their propaganda in the truth, even if the "truth" must be created
Almost all societies, at one time or another, use propaganda to some extent. For example, there was a full-scale propaganda campaign to prepare the American Public for World War II and later another campaign for the Gulf War

The Internal Characteristics of Propaganda

Refers to the psychological make-up of the individuals that are the target of propaganda
Propaganda does not always lead to, or go after, changes in deeply-rooted beliefs (e.g., religious beliefs)
The propagandist must know the "psychological terrain" on which he or she is operating
A propagandist must know the sentiments, opinions, prejudices and stereotypes that exist in the masses so that they can be exploited

The Internal Characteristics of Propaganda

Arguments must be tailored to the population on which they are to be used which involves knowing about the psychological terrain
Propagandists often target behavior change, knowing that attitude change will fall into line with new attitudes
The propagandist selects those stereotypes and prejudices that can be most easily manipulated and uses them to sway the masses

The External Characteristics of Propaganda

Modern propaganda addresses itself to the masses and the individual at the same time
Propaganda addresses the individual within the context of the masses. The individual is always viewed as part of the masses
Apart from the masses, the individual might offer too much resistance to propaganda
Many of our attitudes are derived from affiliation with a group (e.g., religious beliefs, political attitudes--social identity theory)

The External Characteristics of Propaganda

The propagandist uses the masses to break down an individual's ability to critically analyze propaganda and to put pressure on the individual to change attitudes
The masses are always viewed as comprising individuals
For propaganda to be effective it must be ORGANIZED and TOTAL

Techniques Used by Propagandists

USE OF STEREOTYPES

Exploit the natural tendency to categorize people
Refer to a group in a stereotyped way, eventually you think of the group in terms of the stereotype

SUBSTITUTION OF NAMES

Assign a derogatory name to members of an out-group (e.g., Jews=vermin)
Dehumanizes members of the out-group and makes it easier to harm them

LIES AND FALSEHOODS

Lies and outright falsehoods are used (some propagandists don't subscribe to this idea)
At best the "truth" is presented in a biased way

Techniques Used by Propagandists

ASSERTION

Propagandists assert a position firmly
A propagandist is not interested in debate and your point of view

PINPOINTING AN ENEMY

Propaganda works best if it comes out AGAINST something and not just for something
An "enemy" (out-group) is identified and blamed for all ills
This strategy has two results:

Aggression and hostility are deflected away from the propagandist's group
Increases feelings of in-group solidarity (nothing unites people like having a common enemy)

Techniques Used by Propagandists

SELECTION OF FACTS

Facts are selected that support the propagandist's point of view
Most effective when the propagandist has control of all media sources

APPEALS TO AUTHORITY

The propagandist will make appeals to higher sources of authority and identify a leader with those sources of authority
For example, Goebbels identified Hitler with President Hindenberg and even with God

REPETITION

Say something enough times and it becomes familiar and accepted (mere exposure effect)

Samuel Adams' Five Rules of Propaganda

The aims of a cause must be justified
The advantages of victory must be made clear and known
The people need to be aroused to action by instilling hatred of the enemy
Logical arguments of the enemy must be negated
All issues must be stated in clear-cut, black-and-white terms

The Power of Propaganda: Hitler's Rise to Power

April 1, 1924: Hitler is sent to prison at the Landsberg Fortress for his role in the Munich "Beer Hall Putsch"

Nazi party is banned, some founding members in prison, party newspaper banned

December 20, 1924: Hitler is released from prison
1925: Mein Kampf is released

March 9, 1925 Hitler banned from public speaking
Committee organized to get banned lifted
First propaganda opportunity

September, 1928: Ban fully lifted
September 14, 1930: Nazis win 107 seats in Reichstag
April 10, 1932: Hitler loses a runoff election to President Hindenberg but gets 36% of the vote. In a later election the Nazis gain 37% of the seats in the Reichstag
January 30, 1933: Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany by a reluctant President Hindenberg