Animal Reproduction
In what fundamental way is reproduction different from other life processes that involve excretion, circulation, gaseous exchange, etc.?
What are the advantages to organisms that engage in asexual reproduction?  What is the major disadvantage of this strategy?
What biological characteristics do some organisms have that might lead you to suspect that they reproduce by asexual means?
Describe the processes of fission, budding and fragmentation and give examples from the animal kingdom.
What is parthenogenesis and what advantage is this reproductive strategy to the queen bee and her colony?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction?
What is a hermaphrodite?  Do these organisms typically self or cross-fertilize?
What is meant by reciprocal fertilization?
Describe the process of copulation and fertilization in the earthworm.
Do the above processes occur at the same time?
What is the function of the cocoon?
What is meant by alternation of generations?  Give an example from the animal kingdom.
What are the advantages of the above strategy?
Distinguish between simultaneous and sequential hermaphroditism.
How does sex reversal work in wrasses (marine fish)?  What is the effect of inhibitory hormones (pheromones)?
How is internal/external fertilization correlated with the environment that reproduction occurs in?
What are the three types of maternal relationships to their offspring?  Give an example of each.
What ultimately determines sexual differentiation in humans?
At what point of development is sexual differentiation expressed visibly?
What female reproductive structures are homologous to specific male reproductive structures.
What is the function of the inguinal canal in mammals?
Review the functions of the structures in the male and female reproductive system.
Describe the physiological changes associated with the attainment of rigidity of human erectile tissue.

Mendelian Genetics (1) - Lab. Session on Mendelian Genetics
Basic Terminology
Know and be able to apply the basic genetic terms:  gene, allele, gamete, genotype, genotypic ratio, phenotype, phenotypic ratio, dominant and recessive genes, homozygosity, heterozygosity, monohybrid, dihybrid and sex-linked crosses, sex determination, autosome, sex chromosome, haploid condition (n) and diploid condition (2n).

Mendel's Laws
Know Mendel's 1st. Law (Law of Segregation) and be able to apply to a monohybrid cross.
Know Mendel's 2nd. Law (Law of Independent Assortment) and be able to apply it to a dihybrid cross.

Solving Genetics Problems
Be able to solve genetics problems involving 1 trait (monohybrid), a testcross, incomplete dominance, and  sex linked traits using the Punnett Square technique.  Be able to determine phenotypes and their frequencies (%) in the offspring.
Know the genetic cross involved in the fruit fly experiment and what results we got.  How close did the observed results match with the expected results?
Explain how some inherited traits like height and skin color are effected by multiple alleles.
Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous phenotypic variation.
How is sex determined genetically?

Animal Development (1)
Fertilization
What are the roles of the following structures in the process of fertilization:  mitochondrion, sperm nucleus, acrosome, vitelline envelope, cortical granule, fertilization membrane, egg nucleus, zygote nucleus?
Briefly describe the acrosomal and cortical reactions.

Cleavage
Distinguish between holoblastic, discoidal and other cleavage patterns discussed in lecture.  Give an example of an organism utilizing each type.
Discuss how and why cleavage patterns are influenced both by the amount and by the distribution of yolk.
What are the functions of cleavage?
How many cleavage divisions typically occur?
How is radial cleavage different from spiral cleavage?  (see handout)  Give animal examples for each.

Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes
Why can humans and see urchins produce identical twins whereas insects, molluscs, etc. cannot?
What basic developmental patterns are found in protostomes?  in deuterostomes?

Blastula
What is the blastula stage?  Is it of short or long duration?

Gastrula Stage
More than anything else, what is the gastrula stage characterized by?
What is a blastopore?
How are the mouth, gut and anus laid down in animals?
What are the 3 germ layers that are laid down during the gastrula stage and what is their physical position relative to each other?
What body systems are derived from each germ layer?
What forms between the two layers of mesoderm when they split apart?

Neurulation
Describe the major events that occur in the process of neurulation.
What is a neural tube?  (Failure of the neural tube to close at birth results in the serious problem known as spina bifida).
What does the neural tube differentiate into?
What are somites and what do they differentiate into?
What is meant by differentiation?
What is meant by organogenesis?

Animal Development (2)
Induction
Explain the concept of induction by using an example or two from the handout.
How is induction involved with the process of development and differentiation.  (Both processes interact to produce the final developmental products).
Explain the process of induction of the parts of the eye.  Note that there is an orderly sequence of developmental events.

Early Development in Amniotes
What roles do the following play in chick development:  amnion, amniotic cavity, yolk sac, chorion, allantois, chorioallantoic membrane, shell membrane and shell?
Why is the amniotic fluid sampled ( a process called amniocentesis)?
What counterparts of the above structures are associated with human embryos?
When does ovulation in humans occur?
Where does conception occur?  What is the "window of opportunity" for conception time-wise?
How much time elapses between fertilization and attachment to the uterus?
What are limb buds and pharyngeal arches?
Why does neurological growth birth occur after a child's birth?
What is the impact of proper nutrition on neurological growth?

Mitosis and Meiosis
Describe the components of the cell cycle.
Why is mitosis only considered to be part of the cell cycle?
Describe what is happening within the cell during interphase.
What are the phases of mitosis and what major event(s) are occurring in each?
What is meant by the term cytokinesis?
What are the three parts of interphase?
What happens at the G1 and G2 checkpoints?
What is the role of the p53 gene and the p53 enzyme in the mitotic process of a normal cell?
What is the effect of a mutated p53 gene on normal cell division?
How is the process of mitosis connected to that of meiosis in the life cycle of humans?
Describe in your own words how meiosis is different from mitosis.
Which is more similar to mitosis, Meiosis I or Meiosis II?
What is crossing over and of what significance is to the issue of genetic variability within a species?

Mendelian Genetics (2)
What is a genetic karyotype?
Define the term "nondisjunction".
When does nondisjunction occur during meiosis?
What is the result of this process when it involves sex chromosomes?
How are Klinefelters and Turners Syndromes different?
How does Down Syndrome occur?
What chromosome is typically involved?
Why is Down Syndrome more commonly associated with a meiotic problem with the egg rather than the sperm?
How is a human pedigree chart designed?  What do the various symbols mean?
Why is this a very valuable tool of a genetics counselor?
Give examples of a few genetic diseases discussed in lecture:  autosomal recessive, autosomal dominants, sex-linked, and those related to nondisjunction.

Molecular Genetics (1)
What is the relationship between the following:  gene, chromosome and DNA?
What is the relationship between DNA and protein synthesis?
What is the difference between replication, transcription and translation?
What are the chemical components of DNA and how are these subunits arranged relative to each other?
What bases are part of the DNA molecule?
How are these bases paired up (the so-called "base-pairing" rule)?
What connects the bases to each other in the DNA strand?
What is meant by the concept "semiconservative nature of DNA replication"?
What are the characteristics of the RNA molecule and how is it distinguished from DNA?
What are the three types of RNA and what are their functions?

Molecular Genetics (2)
What is the unit of information involved in coding for a specific amino acid?
Explain the concept of the genetic code.

Translation
What is a codon?
What is the significance of "start" and "stop" codons?
What is an anticodon?
How do codons and anticodons match up?
How are amino acids assembled?  What is the role of the peptide bond?
What happens to tRNA after a peptide bond is formed?
What is point mutation?  Explain the effects of a point mutation on protein synthesis. 
What is the genetic basis of sickle-cell anemia?
What is meant by the statement:  "Genes code for functional end-products"?

Gene Control
Explain why pancreatic cells produce insulin and nerve cells don't.
Explain why neither cell above produces hemoglobin.
What are the roles of promoters, operators and repressors in controlling gene function?
Explain gene activation.

Gene Technology  and Recombinant DNA 
What is the difference between amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling?
How are these activities related to gene technology and gene therapy?
What is recombinant DNA?
How does recombinant DNA technology work and what are some examples of its applications?
 
 
 

End of Study Material for Exam 4